Control of wet scrubber oxidation inhibitor and byproduct recovery

ABSTRACT

The present disclose is directed to a method for controlling iodine levels in wet scrubbers, and, in particular, recirculating wet scrubbers by removing the iodine from the scrubbing solution, such as by using ion exchange, absorption, adsorption, precipitation, filtration, solvent extraction, ion pair extraction, and an aqueous two-phase extraction.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 16/188,758 filed Nov. 13, 2018 which is a continuation of U.S.patent application Ser. No. 15/694,536, filed Sep. 1, 2017, now U.S.Pat. No. 10,159,931, with an issue date of Dec. 25, 2018, which is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/217,749, filed Jul.22, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,889,405, with an issue date of Feb. 13,2018, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/512,142, filed Oct. 10, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,409,123, with anissued date of Aug. 9, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/861,162, filed Apr. 11, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No.8,883,099 with an issued date of Nov. 11, 2014, which claims thebenefits of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/622,728, filed Apr.11, 2012, all having the same title, each of which is incorporatedherein by this reference in its entirety.

FIELD

The disclosure relates generally to mercury removal from waste gas andparticularly to halogen-assisted mercury removal from waste gas.

BACKGROUND

Plants that have a majority of elemental mercury emissions in thedischarge flue gas (or waste gas) may utilize halogen additives tocontrol mercury emissions. One primary effect of a halogen additive isto promote oxidized mercury species (Hg⁺⁺) in the flue gas. Mercuryemissions are generally reduced by two mechanisms: (a) adsorption ofmercury (Hg⁺⁺ in particular) on particles or particulates in the fluegas and subsequent removal by the particulate control device; and/or (b)absorption of Hg⁺⁺ in a flue-gas desulfurization (“FGD”) scrubber. Amonghalogens, bromine and bromide additives and brominated sorbents arewidely employed for mercury control from coal-fired sources. However,there are serious emerging problems associated with the use of highconcentration bromide additives and sorbents. Applied as coal additives,iodine and iodide salts are an alternative to bromine.

There is a need to optimize performance and reduce operating costs ofiodine additives for mercury control for plants with wet FGD scrubbers.Iodine or iodide compounds are often added onto the coal feed at a rateof about 1 to 30 ppm_(w) of coal feed. Iodine is a relatively expensivecompared to bromine, but is about 10 times more efficient as a mercuryoxidizer. Compared to bromine and bromide additives, iodine and iodidesalts can have fewer detrimental side effects, such as metal corrosion,and has less potential to create emissions of stratosphericozone-destroying precursors (due in part to its use at much lowerconcentrations).

There is also a need to control iodine buildup in flue gas treatmentprocesses, even where iodine and/or iodide salts are not added. Manycoals used in utility plants have higher native iodine concentrations(>3 ppm_(w)). The majority of North American coals and lignites (forwhich there is measured iodine data) have low iodine concentration (<1ppm_(w)). However, iodine is not comprehensively monitored in NorthAmerican coals. Iodine is known to accumulate in certain coal formationssuch as marine roof coals and in select coals associated with volcanicactivity.

Native iodine in the coal and/or iodine added to the coal feed isbelieved to first form hydroiodic acid (HI) as it cools aftercombustion. Further reactions convert a portion of this to molecular I₂gas. Iodide in flue gas as hydroiodic acid is water soluble and will beretained in the scrubber slurry. Iodine is less soluble in solution, butsolubility is increased in a mixed iodide/iodine solution. In solution,the molecular iodine reacts reversibly with the negative I⁻ ion,generating the I₃ ⁻ anion, which is soluble in water.

An excess of iodine dissolved in scrubber solution can not only bevolatilized during upset conditions, leading to a characteristic “purpleplume” stack emission but also interfere with acid gas removal. Iodineis an oxidation inhibitor. High concentrations of iodide/iodine in thescrubbing solution moderate the sulfite oxidation rate and suppress theoxidation reduction potential (ORP). Iodide is able to reduce either thesulfite or the peroxomonosulfate radicals or the catalytically activetransition-metal ions and is thereby oxidized to iodine. It cansubsequently be reduced to iodide again by excess sulfite. Therefore,iodine is able to inhibit the overall SO₂ to sulfating reaction(s) andis not consumed in the process.

SUMMARY

These and other needs are addressed by the various aspects, embodiments,and configurations of the present disclosure. The present disclose isdirected generally to controlling iodine and/or iodide levels in webscrubbers.

A method, according to the present disclosure, can include the steps of:

(a) receiving a waste gas comprising an acid gas and elemental iodineand/or an iodine-containing composition;

(b) passing the waste gas through a wet scrubber to remove, from thewaste gas, at least a portion of the acid gas and the elemental iodineand/or iodine-containing composition and form a scrubbing solutioncomprising an acid derived from the acid gas and/or a derivative thereofand the elemental iodine and/or iodine-containing composition; and

(c) removing, from the scrubbing solution, at least a portion of theelemental iodine and/or iodine-containing composition, thereby reducinga concentration of the elemental iodine and/or iodine-containingcomposition in the scrubbing solution.

Another method, according to this disclosure, can include the steps of:

(a) receiving a waste gas comprising an acid gas and elemental mercury;

(b) contacting an iodine-containing additive with the waste gas upstreamof a wet scrubber to oxidize elemental mercury in the waste gas to anon-elemental mercury

(c) passing the waste gas through a wet scrubber to remove at least aportion of the acid gas and elemental iodine/or an iodine-containingcomposition derived from the iodine-containing additive and form ascrubbing solution comprising an acid and/or salt derived from the acidgas and the elemental iodine and iodine-containing composition; and

(d) removing, from the scrubbing solution, at least a portion of theelemental iodine and/or iodine-containing composition, thereby reducinga concentration of the elemental iodine and/or iodine-containingcomposition in the scrubbing solution.

Another method, according to the disclosure, can include the steps of:

(a) receiving a waste gas comprising elemental iodine and/or aniodine-containing composition;

(b) passing the waste gas through a wet scrubber to remove the elementaliodine and/or iodine-containing composition from the waste gas and forma scrubbing solution comprising the elemental iodine and/or aniodine-containing composition; and

(c) removing, from the scrubbing solution, at least a portion of theelemental iodine and/or iodine-containing composition by one or more ofion exchange, absorption, adsorption, precipitation, filtration, solventextraction, ion pair extraction, and aqueous two-phase extraction,thereby reducing a concentration of the elemental iodine and/oriodine-containing composition in the scrubbing solution.

When the waste gas includes elemental mercury, the method can includethe step of contacting an iodine-containing additive with the waste gasupstream of the wet scrubber to oxidize elemental mercury in the wastegas to a non-elemental mercury.

The elemental iodine and/or iodine-containing composition can be removedfrom the scrubbing solution by a carbonaceous material. The elementaliodine and/or iodine-containing composition can be sorbed on thecarbonaceous material. The method can further include the steps of:

recovering the carbonaceous material from the scrubbing solution; and

introducing the recovered carbonaceous material to the waste gas as theiodine-containing additive.

Iodine or iodide compounds are commonly added onto the coal feed at arate of about 1 to 30 ppm_(w) of coal feed.

In some applications, the method can include the further steps of:

contacting an iodine-containing additive with a mercury-containing feedmaterial, the waste gas being derived from the mercury-containing feedmaterial;

recovering the carbonaceous material from the scrubbing solution; and

introducing the recovered carbonaceous material to the waste gas as theiodine-containing additive.

The removing step can include passing at least a portion of thescrubbing solution through a carbonaceous material to collect onto thecarbonaceous material the elemental iodine and/or iodine-containingcomposition.

After the removing step, the scrubbing solution can be returned to thewet scrubber, particularly when the wet scrubber is a flue-gasdesulfurization scrubber.

In some applications, the flow of the scrubbing solution through thecarbonaceous material is controlled at a rate to maintain overall iodineconcentration in the scrubber solution at less than about 100 ppm.

In some applications, the flow of an input scrubbing solution through afirst bed of the carbonaceous material is stopped automatically by amicroprocessor when a concentration of iodine and/or iodine-containingcomposition in an output scrubbing solution is at least a predeterminedthreshold and/or a difference between concentrations of the at least oneof iodine and iodine-containing composition in the input and outputscrubbing solutions is at least a predetermined threshold. The flow ofthe scrubbing solution through a second bed of the carbonaceous materialcan be initiated automatically by the microprocessor in response to anabsolute value of the concentration of the iodine and iodine-containingcomposition in the output scrubbing solution reaching the at least apredetermined threshold.

The carbonaceous material can be introduced into the waste gas at aninlet to the wet scrubber or into a reservoir of the scrubbing solutionin the wet scrubber. For example, activated carbon or carbonaceoussorbent can be introduced as a powdered sorbent upstream of the wet FGDscrubber or into the recycle loop or in the form of a granular packedbed treatment in the recycle loop.

The scrubbing solution can be contacted with an oxidizing agent and/orpH-adjusted to convert elemental mercury in the scrubbing solutionand/or on the carbonaceous material to a more water soluble form ofmercury and convert iodide to elemental iodine for collection by thecarbonaceous material.

By way of example, iodine concentration in flue-gas desulfurization(“FGD”) scrubbing (slurry) solutions can be controlled by selectivesorption of iodine (I₂) on suspended carbonaceous sorbents, such asactivated carbon. Soluble iodide (I⁻) in the slurry may be oxidized toiodine to remove a portion of the iodine during normal scrubberoperations including forced oxidation or via a separate oxidation stepof the scrubber wastewater treatment stream.

To enhance elemental mercury oxidation, the method can include one ormore of the following steps upstream of the wet scrubber:

(i) contacting the waste gas with at least one of a halogen and ahalogen-containing composition;

(ii) contacting the waste gas with a selective catalytic reductioncatalyst; and

(iii) contacting the waste gas with a carbonaceous material in abaghouse.

In the third option, the carbonaceous material can be introduced intothe waste gas at or near an inlet of the baghouse. Mercury oxidationrate at the FGD inlet may be increased by flue gas transit throughfabric filter baghouse with select fabrics, ash cake characteristics,and sorbent and catalytic oxidizers optionally added.

The various methods can apply, control, recycle, and/or recover iodineto enhance mercury recovery and maintain SO₂ removal efficiency,particularly in wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers oncoal-fired power plants. Microporous carbonaceous sorbents, such asactivated carbon, can be excellent selective sorbents for elementaliodine (but typically not of iodide). Sorbed iodine on the carbonsurface can increase chemisorption of mercury on the carbon surface,increase overall removal of mercury and prevent re-emission of mercuryfrom the scrubber. Controlling buildup of iodide and iodine species inscrubber solution in wet FGD scrubbers can maintain oxidation efficiencyof wet FGD scrubbers. Carbonaceous materials enriched in iodine can beseparated from the scrubbing slurry effectively, further treated toremove mercury and recharged to the coal feed. Alternatively therecovered carbonaceous material can be landfilled and/or the iodine maybe recovered for commercial sale, particularly for plants that fire highiodide coals or that use iodine coal additives for mercury control.

The present disclosure can provide a number of other advantagesdepending on the particular configuration. This disclosure can provide ameans to supplementally control iodide buildup and, optionally, toreduce the amount of halogen coal additive required by recycling aportion of the slurry iodide back to the coal feed. It can substantiallyoptimize performance and reduce operating costs of iodine additives formercury control for plants with wet FGD scrubbers. Although iodine isrelatively expensive compared to bromine, it is about 10 times moreefficient than other halogens, particularly bromine, as a mercuryoxidizer. It can have fewer detrimental side effects such as metalcorrosion and less potential to create emissions of stratosphericozone-destroying precursors (due in part to iodine's use at much lowerconcentrations). The disclosure can also be useful for plants that firecoals or other bio-mass with higher native iodine concentrations (>3ppm_(w)). The majority of North American coals and lignites for whichthere is measured iodine data have low iodine concentration (<1ppm_(w)). Iodine is known to accumulate in certain coal formations suchas marine roof coals and in select coals associated with volcanicactivity. For plants with a fabric filter followed by a wet scrubber,mercury oxidation across the fabric filter can be enhanced by control ofvarious operating parameters to maximize mercury capture in thescrubber.

“A” or “an” entity refers to one or more of that entity. As such, theterms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be usedinterchangeably herein. It is also to be noted that the terms“comprising”, “including”, and “having” can be used interchangeably.

“Absorption” is the incorporation of a substance in one state intoanother of a different state (e.g. liquids being absorbed by a solid orgases being absorbed by a liquid). Absorption is a physical or chemicalphenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules, or ions enter somebulk phase—gas, liquid or solid material. This is a different processfrom adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up bythe volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption).

“Adsorption” is the adhesion of atoms, ions, biomolecules, or moleculesof gas, liquid, or dissolved solids to a surface. This process creates afilm of the adsorbate (the molecules or atoms being accumulated) on thesurface of the adsorbent. It differs from absorption, in which a fluidpermeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. Similar to surfacetension, adsorption is generally a consequence of surface energy. Theexact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the speciesinvolved, but the adsorption process is generally classified asphysisorption (characteristic of weak van der Waals forces)) orchemisorption (characteristic of covalent bonding). It may also occurdue to electrostatic attraction.

“Acid gas” refers to any type of gas or gaseous mixture which forms anacidic compound when mixed with water. The most common types of acidgases are hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), sulfur oxides (SO_(X)) (which can formsulfuric acid when mixed with water), nitric oxides (NO_(X)) (which canform nitric acid when mixed with water), and carbon monoxide (CO) and/orcarbon dioxide (CO₂) (which can form carbonic acid when mixed withwater).

“Ash” refers to the residue remaining after complete combustion of thecoal particles. Ash typically includes mineral matter (silica, alumina,iron oxide, etc.).

“At least one”, “one or more”, and “and/or” are open-ended expressionsthat are both conjunctive and disjunctive in operation. For example,each of the expressions “at least one of A, B and C”, “at least one ofA, B, or C”, “one or more of A, B, and C”, “one or more of A, B, or C”and “A, B, and/or C” means A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together,A and C together, B and C together, or A, B and C together. When eachone of A, B, and C in the above expressions refers to an element, suchas X, Y, and Z, or class of elements, such as X₁-X_(n), Y₁-Y_(m), andZ₁-Z_(o), the phrase is intended to refer to a single element selectedfrom X, Y, and Z, a combination of elements selected from the same class(e.g., X₁ and X₂) as well as a combination of elements selected from twoor more classes (e.g., Y₁ and Z_(o)).

“Biomass” refers to biological matter from living or recently livingorganisms. Examples of biomass include, without limitation, wood, waste,(hydrogen) gas, seaweed, algae, and alcohol fuels. Biomass can be plantmatter grown to generate electricity or heat. Biomass also includes,without limitation, plant or animal matter used for production of fibersor chemicals. Biomass further includes, without limitation,biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel but generally excludesorganic materials, such as fossil fuels, which have been transformed bygeologic processes into substances such as coal or petroleum. Industrialbiomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, includingmiscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane,and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (orpalm oil).

“Carbonaceous” refers to a carbon-containing material, particularly amaterial that is substantially rich in carbon.

“Coal” refers to a combustible material formed from prehistoric plantlife. Coal includes, without limitation, peat, lignite, sub-bituminouscoal, bituminous coal, steam coal, anthracite, and graphite. Chemically,coal is a macromolecular network comprised of groups of polynucleararomatic rings, to which are attached subordinate rings connected byoxygen, sulfur, and aliphatic bridges.

A “composition” refers to one or more chemical units composed of one ormore atoms, such as a molecule, polyatomic ion, chemical compound,coordination complex, coordination compound, and the like. As will beappreciated, a composition can be held together by various types ofbonds and/or forces, such as covalent bonds, metallic bonds,coordination bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, electrostatic forces(e.g., van der Waal's forces and London's forces), and the like.

“Flue-gas desulfurization” or “FGD” refers to a set of technologies toremove gas-phase sulfur dioxide (SO₂), particularly from exhaust fluegases of fossil-fuel power plants and from the emissions of other sulfuroxide emitting processes.

“Halogen” refers to an electronegative element of group VIIA of theperiodic table (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine,listed in order of their activity with fluorine being the most active ofall chemical elements).

“Halide” refers to a binary compound of the halogens.

“High alkali coals” refer to coals having a total alkali (e.g., calcium)content of at least about 20 wt. % (dry basis of the ash), typicallyexpressed as CaO, while “low alkali coals” refer to coals having a totalalkali content of less than 20 wt. % and more typically less than about15 wt. % alkali (dry basis of the ash), typically expressed as CaO.

“High iron coals” refer to coals having a total iron content of at leastabout 10 wt. % (dry basis of the ash), typically expressed as Fe₂O₃,while “low iron coals” refer to coals having a total iron content ofless than about 10 wt. % (dry basis of the ash), typically expressed asFe₂O₃. As will be appreciated, iron and sulfur are typically present incoal in the form of ferrous or ferric carbonates and/or sulfides, suchas iron pyrite.

“High sulfur coals” refer to coals having a total sulfur content of atleast about 1.5 wt. % (dry basis of the coal) while “medium sulfurcoals” refer to coals having between about 1.5 and 3 wt. % (dry basis ofthe coal) and “low sulfur coals” refer to coals typically having a totalsulfur content of less than about 1.5 wt. % (dry basis of the coal),more typically having a total sulfur content of less than about 1.0 wt.%, and even more typically having a total sulfur content of less thanabout 0.8 wt. % of the coal (dry basis of the coal).

“Iodine number” is used to characterize activated carbon performance. Itis a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree ofactivation), often reported in mg/g (typical range 500-1200 mg/g). It isa measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å,or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalentto surface area of carbon between 900 m²/g and 1100 m²/g. Iodine numberis defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbonwhen the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is 0.02 normal.Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in thepores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in theactivated carbon of interest.

“Ion exchange medium” refers to a medium that is able, under selectedoperating conditions, to exchange ions between two electrolytes orbetween an electrolyte solution and a complex. Examples of ion exchangeresins include solid polymeric or mineralic “ion exchangers”. Otherexemplary ion exchangers include ion exchange resins (functionalizedporous or gel polymers), zeolites, montmorillonite clay, clay, and soilhumus. Ion exchangers are commonly either cation exchangers thatexchange positively charged ions (cations) or anion exchangers thatexchange negatively charged ions (anions). There are also amphotericexchangers that are able to exchange both cations and anionssimultaneously. Ion exchangers can be unselective or have bindingpreferences for certain ions or classes of ions, depending on theirchemical structure. This can be dependent on the size of the ions, theircharge, or their structure. Typical examples of ions that can bind toion exchangers are: H⁺ (proton) and OW (hydroxide); single-chargedmonoatomic ions like Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl⁻; double-charged monoatomic ionslike Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺; polyatomic inorganic ions like SO₄ ²⁻ and PO₄ ³⁻;organic bases, usually molecules containing the amino functionalgroup—NR₂H⁺; organic acids often molecules containing —COO⁻ (carboxylicacid) functional groups; and biomolecules that can be ionized: aminoacids, peptides, proteins, etc.

The term “means” as used herein shall be given its broadest possibleinterpretation in accordance with 35 U.S.C., Section 112, Paragraph 6.Accordingly, a claim incorporating the term “means” shall cover allstructures, materials, or acts set forth herein, and all of theequivalents thereof. Further, the structures, materials or acts and theequivalents thereof shall include all those described in the summary ofthe invention, brief description of the drawings, detailed description,abstract, and claims themselves.

Neutron Activation Analysis (“NAA”) refers to a method for determiningthe elemental content of samples by irradiating the sample withneutrons, which create radioactive forms of the elements in the sample.Quantitative determination is achieved by observing the gamma raysemitted from these isotopes.

“Oxidizing agent”, “oxidant” or “oxidizer” refers to an element orcompound that accepts one or more electrons to another species or agentthat is oxidized. In the oxidizing process the oxidizing agent isreduced and the other species which accepts the one or more electrons isoxidized. More specifically, the oxidizer is an electron acceptor, orrecipient, and the reductant is an electron donor or giver.

“Particulate” refers to fine particles, such as fly ash, unburnedcarbon, soot and fine process solids, typically entrained in a gasstream.

“pH Adjustor” refers to any material, whether acidic, basic, oralkaline, that adjusts the pH of a solution. Exemplary basic or alkalinematerials include alkali and alkaline earth metal hydroxides,carbonates, and ammonia and acidic materials include sulfuric acid,hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, phosphoric acid, andother mineral acids.

The phrase “ppmw X” refers to the parts-per-million, based on weight, ofX alone. It does not include other substances bonded to X.

The phrase “ppmv X” refers to the parts-per-million, based on volume, ofX alone. It does not include other substances bonded to X.

“Reducing agent”, “reductant” or “reducer” refers to an element orcompound that donates one or more electrons to another species or agentthis is reduced. In the reducing process the reducing agent is oxidizedand the other species which accepts the one or more electrons isoxidized. More specifically, the reducer is an electron donor and theoxidant is an electron acceptor or recipient.

The terms “remove” or “removing” include the sorption, precipitation,adsorption, absorption, conversion, deactivation, decomposition,degradation, neutralization, and/or killing of a target material.

A “scrubber” or “scrubber system” is an air pollution control devicethat can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases fromindustrial exhaust streams. Traditionally, the term “scrubber” hasreferred to a pollution control device to “wash out” acid gases in anexhaust stream, such as a flue gas.

“Separating” and cognates thereof refer to setting apart, keeping apart,sorting, removing from a mixture or combination, or isolating. In thecontext of gas mixtures, separating can be done by many techniques,including electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, scrubbers, and heatexchange surfaces.

“Soluble” refers to materials that readily dissolve in water. Forpurposes of this invention, it is anticipated that the dissolution of asoluble compound would necessarily occur on a time scale of minutesrather than days. For the compound to be considered to be soluble, it isnecessary that it has a significantly high solubility product such thatupwards of 5 g/L of the compound will be stable in solution.

A “sorbent” is a material that sorbs another substance; that is, thematerial has the capacity or tendency to take it up by sorption.

“Sorb” and cognates thereof mean to take up a liquid or a gas bysorption.

“Sorption” and cognates thereof refer to adsorption and absorption,while desorption is the reverse of adsorption.

Unless otherwise noted, all component or composition levels are inreference to the active portion of that component or composition and areexclusive of impurities, for example, residual solvents or by-products,which may be present in commercially available sources of suchcomponents or compositions.

All percentages and ratios are calculated by total composition weight,unless indicated otherwise.

It should be understood that every maximum numerical limitation giventhroughout this disclosure is deemed to include each and every lowernumerical limitation as an alternative, as if such lower numericallimitations were expressly written herein. Every minimum numericallimitation given throughout this disclosure is deemed to include eachand every higher numerical limitation as an alternative, as if suchhigher numerical limitations were expressly written herein. Everynumerical range given throughout this disclosure is deemed to includeeach and every narrower numerical range that falls within such broadernumerical range, as if such narrower numerical ranges were all expresslywritten herein.

The preceding is a simplified summary of the disclosure to provide anunderstanding of some aspects of the disclosure. This summary is neitheran extensive nor exhaustive overview of the disclosure and its variousaspects, embodiments, and configurations. It is intended neither toidentify key or critical elements of the disclosure nor to delineate thescope of the disclosure but to present selected concepts of thedisclosure in a simplified form as an introduction to the more detaileddescription presented below. As will be appreciated, other aspects,embodiments, and configurations of the disclosure are possibleutilizing, alone or in combination, one or more of the features setforth above or described in detail below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings are incorporated into and form a part of thespecification to illustrate several examples of the present disclosure.These drawings, together with the description, explain the principles ofthe disclosure. The drawings simply illustrate preferred and alternativeexamples of how the disclosure can be made and used and are not to beconstrued as limiting the disclosure to only the illustrated anddescribed examples. Further features and advantages will become apparentfrom the following, more detailed, description of the various aspects,embodiments, and configurations of the disclosure, as illustrated by thedrawings referenced below.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram according to an embodiment;

FIG. 2 is a block diagram according to an embodiment;

FIG. 3 is a block diagram according to an embodiment;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram according to an embodiment;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram according to an embodiment; and

FIG. 6 is a block diagram according to an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Process Overview

The current disclosure is directed to the use of an iodine-containingadditive, typically present in relatively low concentrations, and/ornatively occurring iodine-containing compounds in feed materials, suchas coal, to control mercury emissions from vapor phase mercury evolvingfacilities, such as smelters, autoclaves, roasters, steel foundries,steel mills, cement kilns, power plants, waste incinerators, boilers,and other mercury-contaminated gas stream producing industrialfacilities. Although the mercury is typically evolved by combustion, itmay be evolved by other oxidation and/or reducing reactions, such asroasting, autoclaving, and other thermal processes that expose mercurycontaining materials to elevated temperatures.

The current disclosure is further directed to the application, control,recycle and recovery of iodine to enhance mercury recovery and tomaintain SO₂ removal efficiency in wet flue gas desulfurization (FGD)scrubbers. Iodide concentration in slurry solution is controlled byoxidation of iodide to iodine in scrubber waste water followed byselective sorption of the generated iodine on suspended carbonaceoussorbents, such as activated carbon or by iodide ion (anion) exchange.

Iodine enriched sorbent may be separated from solution, dewatered andrecharged onto the coal feed for combustion if concentration of heavymetals such as mercury and selenium on the sorbent are kept at lowlevels. A portion of the iodine required for coal treatment can therebybe provided by recycle. Alternatively, iodine can be extracted from theactivated carbon for further purification and separation for commercialuse.

While not wishing to be bound by any theory, native iodine in the coalor iodine added to the coal feed is believed to first form hydroiodicacid (HI) as it cools after combustion. Further reactions are believedto convert a portion of this to molecular 12 gas. Iodide in flue gas ashydroiodic acid is water soluble and will be retained in the scrubberslurry. Iodine can be less soluble in solution, but solubility can beincreased in a mixed iodide/iodine solution. In solution, the moleculariodine reacts reversibly with the negative I⁻ ion, generating the I₃ ⁻anion, which is soluble in water. An excess of iodine dissolved inscrubber solution can be volatilized during upset conditions, leading toa characteristic “purple plume” stack emission. Maintaining lower iodineand iodide levels in the scrubbing solution can reduce or eliminateentirely such undesirable emissions.

FIG. 1 depicts a common contaminated gas stream treatment process for anindustrial facility. Referring to FIG. 1, a mercury-containing feedmaterial 100 is provided. In one application, the feed material 100 iscombustible and can be any synthetic or natural, mercury-containing,combustible, and carbon-containing material, including coal and biomass.The feed material 100 can be a high alkali or high iron coal. In otherapplications, the present disclosure is applicable to noncombustible,mercury-containing feed materials, including without limitationmetal-containing ores, concentrates, and tailings.

The feed material 100 can natively include, without limitation, varyinglevels of halogens (e.g., iodine, bromine, and chlorine) and mercury.Typically, the feed material 100 includes typically at least about 0.001ppmw, even more typically from about 0.003 to about 100 ppmw, and evenmore typically from about 0.003 to about 10 ppmw mercury (both elementaland speciated) (measured by neutron activation analysis (“NAA”)).Commonly, a combustible feed material 100 includes no more than about 5ppmw iodine, more commonly no more than about 4 ppmw iodine, even morecommonly no more than about 3 ppmw iodine, even more commonly no morethan about 2 ppmw iodine and even more commonly no more than about 1ppmw iodine (measured by neutron activation analysis (“NAA”)). Acombustible feed material 100 generally will produce, upon combustion,an unburned carbon (“UBC”) content of from about 0.1 to about 30% byweight and even more generally from about 0.5 to about 20% by weight.

The feed material 100 is combusted in thermal unit 104 to produce amercury-containing gas stream 108. The thermal unit 104 can be anycombusting device, including, without limitation, a dry or wet bottomfurnace (e.g., a blast furnace, puddling furnace, reverberatory furnace,Bessemer converter, open hearth furnace, basic oxygen furnace, cyclonefurnace, stoker boiler, cupola furnace and other types of furnaces),boiler, incinerator (e.g., moving grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, orfluidized or fixed bed, incinerators), calciners including multi-hearth,suspension or fluidized bed roasters, intermittent or continuous kiln(e.g., ceramic kiln, intermittent or continuous wood-drying kiln,anagama kiln, bottle kiln, rotary kiln, catenary arch kiln, Feller kiln,noborigama kiln, or top hat kiln), oven, or other heat generation unitsand reactors.

The mercury-containing gas stream 108 includes not only elemental and/orspeciated mercury but also a variety of other materials. A commonmercury-containing gas stream 108 includes at least about 0.001 ppmw,even more commonly at least about 0.003 ppmw, and even more commonlyfrom about 0.005 to about 0.02 ppmw mercury (both elemental andspeciated). Other materials in the mercury-containing gas stream 108 caninclude, without limitation, particulates (such as fly ash), sulfuroxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, unburned carbon, halogens, andother types of particulates.

The temperature of the mercury-containing gas stream 108 variesdepending on the type of thermal unit 104 employed. Commonly, themercury-containing gas stream 108 temperature is at least about 125° C.,even more commonly is at least about 325° C., and even more commonlyranges from about 325 to about 500° C.

The mercury-containing gas stream 108 is optionally passed through aneconomizer 112 and/or a an air preheater 120 to transfer some of thethermal energy of the mercury-containing gas stream 108 to air input tothe thermal unit 104. The heat transfer produces a common temperaturedrop in the mercury-containing gas stream 108 of from about 50 to about300° C. to produce a mercury-containing gas stream 116 temperaturecommonly ranging from about 100 to about 400° C.

The mercury-containing gas stream 108 can also optionally be passedthrough a selective catalytic reduction (“SCR”) zone 116. As will beappreciated, SCR converts nitrogen oxides, or NO_(X), with the aid of acatalyst, into diatomic nitrogen (N₂) and water. The SCR can alsoincrease the oxidation of Hg at the wet scrubber inlet (discussedbelow). A gaseous reductant or reducing agent, typically anhydrousammonia, aqueous ammonia, or urea (but other gas-phase reductants may beemployed), can be injected into a stream of flue or exhaust gas or othertype of gas stream or absorbed onto a catalyst followed by off gassingof the ammonia into the gas stream. Suitable catalysts include, withoutlimitation, ceramic materials used as a carrier, such as titanium oxide,and active catalytic components, such as oxides of base metals (such asvanadium (V₂O₅), wolfram (WO₃), titanium oxide (TiO₂) and tungstate(e.g., WO₄ ²⁻), zeolites, and various precious metals. Other catalysts,however, may be used.

The SCR catalyst surface, depending on the design, catalyst andlayering, is active for reactions other than the primary nitrogen oxidereduction. There are competing reactions occurring for available sitesto reduce NO_(X), oxidize SO₂ to SO₃ and to promote the reaction ofmercury with various species to result in an increased fraction ofoxidized mercury species. The SCR ammonia rate is co-variable with loadand temperature and affects the balance between these competingreactions.

The mercury-containing gas stream 108 is next subjected to particulateremoval device 124 to remove most of the particulates from themercury-containing gas stream and form a treated gas stream 128. Theparticulate removal device 124 can be any suitable device, including anelectrostatic precipitator, particulate filter such as a baghouse, wetparticulate scrubber, and other types of particulate removal devices. Inone configuration a reverse air or pulsed jet baghouse is employed.

The treated gas stream 128 is next passed through a wet scrubber 132,typically a wet FGD scrubber to remove at least most and more typicallyat least about 75% of any remaining particulates and acid gases in thetreated gas stream 408 to form a further treated gas stream 136. Anexemplary scrubber is a limestone forced oxidation LSFO scrubber forSO_(X), heavy metal and mercury control. As will be appreciated, SO₂ isan acid gas, and, therefore, the typical sorbent slurries or othermaterials used to remove the SO₂ from waste gases are alkaline. Atypical reaction taking place in wet scrubbing using a CaCO₃ (limestone)slurry produces CaSO₃ (calcium sulfite) and can be expressed as:

CaCO₃(solid)+SO₂(gas)→CaSO₃(solid)+CO₂(gas).

When wet scrubbing with a Ca(OH)₂ (lime) slurry, the reaction alsoproduces CaSO₃ (calcium sulfite) and can be expressed as:

Ca(OH)₂(solid)+SO₂(gas)→CaSO₃(solid)+H₂O(liquid).

When wet scrubbing with a Mg(OH)₂ (magnesium hydroxide) slurry, thereaction produces MgSO₃ (magnesium sulfite) and can be expressed as:

Mg(OH)₂(solid)+SO₂(gas)→MgSO₃(solid)+H₂O(liquid).

The CaSO₃ (calcium sulfite) can be further oxidized to producemarketable CaSO₄. 2H₂O (gypsum). This technique is also known as forcedoxidation:

CaSO₃(solid)+H₂O(liquid)+½O₂(gas)→CaSO₄(solid)+H₂O.

A common wet limestone FGD system removes sulfur dioxide from the fluegas by passing the flue gas through a chamber that exposes the flue gasto a spray slurry of finely ground limestone. The slurry absorbs the SO₂from the flue gas by reaction of the calcium in the limestone with SO₂to form a mixture of calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate. The slurry ispumped through banks of countercurrent spray nozzles, creating finedroplets with uniform contact with the flue gas.

After absorbing the sulfur dioxide from the flue gas, the slurrycollects in the bottom of the absorber in a reaction tank. It is aeratedvia forced oxidation to oxidize bisulfite ion to sulfate. This can avoidformation of calcium sulfite hemihydrates in favor of producing calciumsulfate dihydrate, or gypsum, which precipitates. Oxidized slurry isthen recirculated to the spray headers. A portion of the slurry iswithdrawn to remove the precipitated gypsum. Typically, the slurry isdewatered in a two-stage process involving a hydroclone and vacuumfilter system to produce a gypsum cake for disposal or sale. Waterremoved from the slurry is returned to the process. A portion of thiswater is removed from the system as wastewater to limit the accumulationof chloride salts and other undesirable constituents introduced with thecoal.

The solid fines are separated from the coarse gypsum solids using ahydroclone. The hydroclone overflow stream is further treated prior towastewater discharge and return of a portion of the liquid to the slurryreaction tank.

Other scrubbing reagents can be used in the scrubbing solution. Asexplained above, alkaline sorbents are used for scrubbing flue gases toremove SO₂. Other examples of alkaline sorbents include sodium hydroxide(also known as caustic soda). Caustic soda has the advantage that itforms a solution rather than a slurry. It produces a “spent caustic”solution of sodium sulfite/bisulfite (depending on the pH), or sodiumsulfate that must be disposed of. It is possible to scrub sulfur dioxideby using a cold solution of sodium sulfite, this forms a sodium hydrogensulfite solution. By heating this solution it is possible to reverse thereaction to form sulfur dioxide and the sodium sulfite solution. Sincethe sodium sulfite solution is not consumed, it is called a regenerativetreatment. The application of this reaction is also known as theWellman-Lord process.

The further treated gas stream 136 is emitted, via gas discharge orstack 140, into the environment.

The Iodine-Containing Additive for Mercury Control

To control mercury emissions in the mercury-containing gas stream 108,an iodine-containing additive 144, typically in the form of iodide saltsor as iodine or iodate (IO₃ ⁻), can be employed. The iodine in theadditive 144 can be in the form of a solid, liquid, vapor, or acombination thereof. It can be in the form of an elemental halogen(e.g., iodine (I₂)), a halide (e.g., binary halides, oxo halides,hydroxo halides, and other complex halides), an inter-halogen cation oranion, a haloacid (e.g., iodic acid and periodic acid), a halosalt(e.g., a periodate), a homoatomic polyanion, and mixtures thereof. Inone formulation, the iodine in the additive 144 is composed primarily ofan alkali or alkaline earth metal iodide. In one formulation, theiodine-containing additive 144 is substantially free of other halogensand even more typically contains no more than about 25%, even moretypically no more than about 10%, and even more typically no more thanabout 5% of the halogens as halogen(s) other than iodine. In oneformulation, the iodine-containing additive 144 contains at least about100 ppmw, more commonly at least about 1,000 ppmw, and even morecommonly at least about 1 wt. % iodine. In one formulation, theiodine-containing additive contains no more than about 40 wt. % fixed ortotal carbon, more commonly no more than about 25 wt. % fixed or totalcarbon, even more commonly no more than about 15 wt. % fixed or totalcarbon, and even more commonly no more than about 5 wt. % fixed or totalcarbon. In one formulation, the iodine-containing additive 144 is a high(native) iodine coal. In one formulation, the iodine-containing additive144 is an iodine-containing waste or byproduct material, such as amedical waste. In one formulation, the iodine-containing additive 144comprises iodine attached to a solid support, such as by absorption,adsorption, ion exchange, formation of a chemical composition,precipitation, physical entrapment, or other attachment mechanism. Thesolid support can be inorganic or organic. Examples include ion exchangeresins (functionalized porous or gel polymers), soil humus, a porouscarbonaceous material, metal oxides (e.g., alumina, silica,silica-alumina, gamma-alumina, activated alumina, acidified alumina, andtitania), metal oxides containing labile metal anions (such as aluminumoxychloride), non-oxide refractories (e.g., titanium nitride, siliconnitride, and silicon carbide), diatomaceous earth, mullite, porouspolymeric materials, crystalline aluminosilicates such as zeolites(synthetic or naturally occurring), amorphous silica-alumina, mineralsand clays (e.g., bentonite, smectite, kaolin, dolomite, montmorillinite,and their derivatives), porous ceramics metal silicate materials andminerals (e.g., one of the phosphate and oxide classes), ferric salts,and fibrous materials (including synthetic (for example, withoutlimitation, polyolefins, polyesters, polyamides, polyacrylates, andcombinations thereof) and natural (such as, without limitation,plant-based fibers, animal-based fibers, inorganic-based fibers,cellulosic, cotton, paper, glass and combinations thereof). Commonly,the iodine-containing additive 144 contains no more than about 10 wt. %iodine, more commonly no more than about 5 wt. % iodine, even morecommonly no more than about 1 wt. % iodine, even more commonly no morethan about 0.5 wt. % iodine, and even more commonly no more than about0.1 wt. % iodine.

The iodine-containing additive 144 can be contacted with themercury-containing gas stream 108 at any of a variety of locations,including upstream of the economizer 112, in the economizer 112, at theinlet of the SCR 116, in the SCR 116, at the inlet of the air preheater120, in the air preheater 120, at the inlet of the particulate removaldevice 124, and in the particulate removal device 124. It can also beadded to the feed material 100 prior to and/or during combustion. Forexample, the iodine-containing additive 144 can be added directly to thefeed material 100 upstream of the thermal unit 104. The coal feed can betreated with a potassium iodide solution or a carbonaceous sorbentenriched in iodine can be added to the coal. Alternatively, the iodinemay be injected into the boiler combustion zone or the process off-gasstream. The range of addition is typically about 1 to 30 ppm_(w) of thecoal feed. When introduced into the mercury-containing gas stream 108,the iodine-containing additive 144 is introduced into the gas stream108, such as by injection as a liquid, vapor, or solid powder. Theiodine-containing additive can be dissolved in a liquid, commonlyaqueous, in the form of a vapor, in the form of an aerosol, or in theform of a solid or supported on a solid. In one formulation, theiodine-containing additive 144 is introduced as a liquid droplet oraerosol downstream of the thermal unit 104. In this formulation, theiodine is dissolved in a solvent that evaporates, leaving behind solidor liquid particles of the iodine-containing additive 144.

In one plant configuration, sufficient iodine-containing additive 144 isadded to produce a gas-phase iodine concentration commonly of about 8ppm_(w) basis of the flue gas or less, even more commonly of about 5ppm_(w) basis or less, even more commonly of about 3.5 ppm_(w), basis orless, even more commonly of about 1.5 ppm_(w) or less, and even morecommonly of about 0.4 ppm_(w) or less of the mercury-containing gasstream. Stated another way, the iodine concentration relative to theweight of mercury-containing, combustible (e.g., coal) feed (as fed)(whether by direct application to the combustible feed and/or injectioninto the mercury-containing (e.g., flue) gas) commonly is about 40 ppmwor less, more commonly about 35 ppmw or less, even more commonly about30 ppmw or less, even more commonly is about 15 ppmw or less, even morecommonly no more than about 10 ppmw, even more commonly no more thanabout 6 ppmw, even more commonly about 4 ppmw or less, and even morecommonly no more than about 3 ppmw. Stated another way, the molar ratio,in the mercury-containing (e.g., flue) gas, of gas-phase diatomic iodineto total gas-phase mercury (both speciated and elemental) is commonly nomore than about 1,200, and even more commonly no more than about 600,even more commonly no more than about 250, even more commonly no morethan about 150, and even more commonly no more than about 80. By way ofillustration, an effective concentration of gas-phase iodine at the airpreheater outlet or particulate removal device inlet ranges from about0.1 to about 10 ppmw, even more commonly from about 0.15 to about 5ppmw, even more commonly from about 0.20 to about 2 ppmw, and even morecommonly from about 0.25 to about 1.50 ppmw of the mercury-containinggas stream.

Commonly, the mercury-containing gas stream includes no more than about1.0, even more commonly no more than about 0.5 and even more commonly nomore than about 0.1 ppmw total bromine. The feed material generallyincludes no more than about 10 ppmw and even more commonly no more thanabout 5 ppmw natively occurring bromine.

The mercury-containing (e.g., flue) gas temperature for elementalmercury capture promoted by iodine commonly ranges from about 150 toabout 600° C. and even more commonly from about 180 to about 450° C. Theresidence time upstream of particulate (e.g., fly ash) removal device120 is commonly about 8 seconds, and even more commonly at least about 4seconds, and even more commonly at least about 2 seconds.

Generally, sufficient iodine-containing additive 144 is added to producea gas-phase iodine concentration commonly of about 3.5 ppmw or less,even more commonly of about 2 ppmw or less, even more commonly of about1.5 ppmw or less, and even more commonly of about 0.4 ppmw or less.Stated another way, the molar ratio, in the mercury-containing (e.g.,flue) gas, of gas-phase iodine to total gas-phase mercury (bothspeciated and elemental) is commonly no more than about 1,000, even morecommonly no more than about 600, even more commonly no more than about500, even more commonly no more than about 250, even more commonly nomore than about 150, and even more commonly no more than about 80.

The Carbonaceous Material

The carbonaceous material 150 can be any porous (preferably microporous)carbonaceous iodine sorbent, including (powdered, granular, extruded,bead, impregnated, or polymer coated) activated carbon, carbon black,char, charcoal, and pet coke. The carbonaceous material 150 commonly hasan iodine number ranging from about 250 to about 1,500 mg/g, morecommonly from about 300 to about 1,450 mg/g, more commonly from about350 to about 1,400 mg/g, more commonly from about 350 to about 1,350mg/g, and even more commonly from about 500 to about 1,300 mg/g.

While the carbonaceous material 150 can (as shown by the arrows) beadded at any location or multiple locations in or upstream of theparticulate removal device 124 to remove mercury from the waste gas (theiodine-containing additive 144 can promote both mercury oxidation andchemisorption on the carbonaceous material 150), it is contacted withthe contaminated scrubbing solution 160 in the wet scrubber 132 tocontrol iodine levels, which can impair scrubber performance. Statedanother way, the carbonaceous material can be injected in multiplelocations simultaneously, for example, into the fabric filter inlet toboost oxidation and into the wastewater treatment to recover iodine.

By way of illustration, uncontrolled iodide buildup in solution canoccur in a recirculating wet FGD scrubber, thereby interfering with SO₂absorption. When SO₂ is absorbed in water the chemical reaction formsbisulfite, which is a well-known reducing agent:

SO₂+H₂O→H⁺+HSO₃ ⁻SO₂-absorption

In typical FGD scrubbers designed for gypsum production, this bisulfiteion is oxidized to sulfate by molecular oxygen.

HSO₃ ⁻+½O₂→+SO₄ ⁻²Sulfite oxidation

Sulfite concentration in the scrubbing (slurry) solution controls therate of SO₂ absorption. Low sulfite concentration in the scrubbingsolution is one measure of high oxidation. If the oxidation rate is toolow, the SO₂ removal efficiency can be decreased.

Iodine in the scrubbing solution is an oxidation inhibitor. Highconcentrations of iodide/iodine in the recirculated scrubbing solutionmoderate the sulfite oxidation rate and suppress the oxidation-reductionpotential (ORP). Iodide is able to reduce either the sulfite or theperoxomonosulfate radicals or the catalytically active transition-metalions and is thereby oxidized to iodine. It can subsequently be reducedto iodide again by excess sulfite. Therefore, iodine is able to inhibitthe overall SO₂ to sulfating reaction(s) and is not consumed in theprocess.

Buildup of iodine and iodide in the recirculating scrubbing solution canhave other effects.

Lower ORP as a result of iodide can beneficially cause speciation ofselenium in scrubber solution from selenate (SeO₄ ²⁻) to selenite (SeO₃²⁻). Selenate is extremely difficult to remove prior to discharge andtherefore, for some scrubbers that are limited by wastewater dischargelimits for selenium, ORP reduction in a controlled manner via control ofiodide concentration could be a desirable outcome.

Gas-phase mercury in coal combustion flue gases is present as eitherelemental)(Hg⁰), or oxidized (ionic) mercury (Hg⁺⁺). Elemental mercuryis relatively insoluble in aqueous solutions, and is not removed atsignificant percentages in wet FGD absorbers. Oxidized mercury asmercuric chloride or mercuric bromide is very soluble and is absorbedinto the FGD scrubbing slurry at high efficiency. Mercuric iodide,however is not as soluble. Oxidized mercury iodide can be lost from FGDslurry solution when utilizing iodine as a coal additive for mercurycontrol.

The net removal of oxidized mercury across the FGD system is oftenlimited to lower percentages by mercury “re-emission”. While not wishingto be bound by any theory, a portion of the absorbed oxidized mercurycan undergo chemical reduction reactions while dissolved in the aqueousphase and be converted to the relatively insoluble elemental form. Onceconverted, it is released from the aqueous phase back into the furthertreated waste gas 136.

An increase in vapor-phase iodine in the waste gas 108 upstream of a wetFGD scrubber can also lead to undesirable mercury re-emission from thewet scrubber. As noted, iodine suppresses ORP in slurry solution.Scrubber sulfite in turn is increased to compensate and Hg⁺⁺ speciesdissolved in solution may then be reduced to Hg⁰ and re-emitted. Iodineis also reduced to iodide by sulfite and therefore the iodideconcentration in solution will be increased.

Commonly, the carbonaceous material 150 contacted with the scrubbingsolution maintains a concentration of iodide and iodine in the scrubbingsolution of no more than about 1,000 mg/L, more commonly of no more thanabout 500 mg/L, and even more commonly of no more than about 50 mg/L. Atypical concentration range of iodine and iodide in the scrubbingsolution is from about 0.01 to about 50 mg/L, more typically from about0.05 to about 25 mg/L, and even more typically from about 0.10 to about5 mg/L. In some applications, a flow of the scrubbing solution through afluidized or fixed packed bed of the carbonaceous material is controlledat a rate to maintain overall iodine concentration in the scrubbersolution commonly at less than about 100 ppm and more commonly at lessthan 50 ppm.

While the iodide concentration in the recirculating scrubbing solutioncan be indirectly controlled through periodic scrubber blow down andwaste water discharge, this is typically not effective in the absence ofcontacting the recirculating scrubbing solution with a carbonaceousmaterial. As will be appreciated, “blow down” is a method of solidscontrol. In scrubbers, solids accumulation (both dissolved and suspendedsolids) can interfere with the operation of the unit. Solids accumulatebecause of evaporative processes, and, to control the solids buildup.The solids buildup tend to be particulate when the scrubber is operatingon the waste gas, and salts when the scrubber is operating on a chemicalstream off gas. The salt buildup beyond a certain point can reduce theefficiency of the scrubber by approaching the solubility point of thescrubbed material in the scrubber solution. When the solubility limit isreached, the absorption stops and the scrubber efficiency can drop toalmost zero. Alternatively, the scrubber may, when the solubility limitis reached, begin to deposit solids on the walls of the pipe and thelike. To reduce the solids accumulation, the scrubber water rich insolids or salts is wasted or blown down and replaced with low solidswater.

Blow down frequency is often adjusted to control total dissolved solids(TDS) and/or chlorides but also can incidentally reduce iodideconcentration. Regular blow down schedule may be insufficient when highlevels of inlet flue gas iodine are maintained over a long period oftime.

The carbonaceous material 150 can remove commonly at least most, morecommonly at least about 65%, more commonly at least about 75%, and evenmore commonly at least about 85% of the iodine and iodine-containingcompounds in the scrubber solution from the treated waste stream 128. Asa result of iodine removal, the further treated waste gas 136 has a lowconcentration of the iodine and/or iodine-containing compounds.Preferably, the concentration of the iodine and/or iodine-containingcompounds in the further treated waste gas 136 is no more than about 25ppm, more preferably no more than about 20 ppm, more preferably no morethan about 15 ppm, more preferably no more than about 10 ppm, and evenmore preferably no more than about 5 ppm.

Total carbonaceous sorbent required for iodine removal can be relativelyminimal. Powdered activated carbon was laboratory tested for iodineuptake from brine solution. In these tests, the iodine source waspotassium iodide that was oxidized in solution with dilute hydrogenperoxide. Uptake of up to 100% as iodine by weight of the carbon wasmeasured. The activated carbon tested was a microporous high capacitywith an iodine number of >800 mg/g. In practice, it is expected thatworking capacity of about 0.5 lb/lb of carbonaceous sorbent could beachieved. As an example, for a 500 MW power plant with iodine coaladditive for mercury control, about 3 to 15 lbs/hr of a highlymicroporous activated carbon would be sufficient to recover all of thecoal additive. The annual recoverable product would be about 3 to 12tons/year, assuming a 50% recovery.

Iodine Recovery, Regeneration, and Recycle

Returning to FIGS. 1 and 6, an optional regeneration facility 170 canrecover iodine-impregnated carbonaceous material 150 from the scrubbingsolution and recirculate the recovered iodine-impregnated carbonaceousmaterial 150 as the iodine-containing additive 144. While not wishing tobe bound by any theory, it is believed that mercury and other volatilemetals that were present in the scrubbing solution are retained on thecarbonaceous material at very low concentration compared to the mercurycontent of the input coal. Therefore, the carbonaceous material withsorbed iodine can be charged back to the coal belt and combusted withoutconcern of overall mercury buildup in the combustion process. In thisway, a portion of the iodine required as coal additive can be recovereddirectly from the process without the need for purchase of expensive andoverly purified primary iodine supply. Removal of iodide from the wastewater recycle, combined with the normal blow down process, will commonlykeep iodide concentration in the scrubbing solution at lowconcentration. This in turn will increase retention of the inlet iodine(and better overall recovery of iodine) in the liquid phase bymaintaining the concentration farther below a solubility limit.

The operation of the facility 170 will be discussed with reference toFIG. 6.

In step 600, the waste gas 108 is contacted with the scrubbing solutionin the wet scrubber 132 to form a contaminated scrubbing solution. Whilethe contents can vary by application and scrubbing reagent employed, thecontaminated scrubbing solution will typically include, in addition tobisulfite ion, sulfite ion, sulfate ion, selenite, selenate, iodine,iodide, sulfuric acid, carbonate, and gypsum.

In step 604, the contaminated scrubbing solution is contacted with thecarbonaceous material 150. Contacting may be effected by passing thecontaminated scrubbing solution through a packed or fluidized bed,forming a slurry containing the carbonaceous material 150 (such as byintroducing the carbonaceous material into the waste gas scrubber inletand/or directly into the scrubbing solution), as a separate treatmentstep of the fine solids in the scrubber wastewater treatment stream, andas a polishing step to recover iodine from recycle water or wastewaterdischarge.

In optional steps 608 and 612, the contaminated scrubbing solution iscontacted with an oxidizing agent, such as a hypochlorite, and/orpH-adjusted by contact with a pH adjustor to convert at least most andcommonly substantially all iodide to iodine and oxidize mercury sorbedonto the carbonaceous material to a soluble form of mercury, such asHg⁺⁺ species dissolved in solution. Iodine is sorbed more readily by thecarbonaceous agent than iodide, and mercury oxidation can remove atleast most and commonly substantially all of the sorbed mercury from thesurface of the carbonaceous material. Commonly, the ORP of thecontaminated scrubbing solution for a limestone forced oxidationscrubber employing recirculation is maintained in the range of fromabout 200 to about 800 mV (as measured typically platinum/gold ORPelectrode) and more commonly from about 300 to about 700 mV (as measuredby typically platinum/gold ORP electrode), and the pH is maintained inthe range of from about pH 5 to about pH 6 and more commonly from aboutpH 5 to about pH 5.5.

The dissolved mercury can be precipitated by a suitable precipitant fromthe contaminated scrubbing solution. Suitable precipitants includesulfides, particularly organosulfides, or an amalgamating agent.

In optional step 616, the iodine-loaded carbonaceous material isrecycled to the thermal unit 104 and/or introduced into the waste gas108 to enhance elemental and speciated mercury removal.

Referring to FIG. 2, an exemplary iodine recovery, regeneration, andrecycle plant configuration is depicted. In the configuration,contaminated scrubbing solution 200 is removed from the wet scrubber132, passed through a fixed or fluidized bed of carbonaceous material150 and the treated scrubbing solution 204 returned to the scrubber 132.

FIG. 5 depicts a regeneration facility 170 that may be employed in theplant configuration of FIG. 2.

The facility 500 includes an input conduit 504 to carry contaminatedscrubbing solution, an input sensor 508 (such as a spectrophotometer) tosense the concentration of iodine and/or iodide in the contaminatedscrubbing solution, an input manifold 512 and plural controllable inputvalves 516 a, b, . . . to direct the contaminated scrubbing solution toan appropriate bed of carbonaceous material in a selected vessel 520 a,b, . . . , plural controllable output valves 524 a, b, . . . to preventbackflow of treated contaminated scrubbing solution to othernon-selected beds, an output manifold 528, an output conduit 532 tocarry the treated contaminated scrubbing solution back to the scrubber,and an output sensor 536 (such as a spectrophotometer) to sense theconcentration of iodine and/or iodide in the treated contaminatedscrubbing solution.

The facility further includes a controller 540 in communication, viacontrol lines 544, 548, 552, and 556, with the input and output sensors508 and 536 and input and output valves 516 a, b, . . . and 524 a, b, .. . . The controller 540 comprises a computer readable medium (notshown) and microcontroller (not shown) to sense an input iodine and/oriodide concentration in the contaminated scrubbing solution and outputiodine and/or iodide concentration in the treated contaminated scrubbingsolution, compare the input and output concentrations, when the outputconcentration and/or the difference between the input and outputconcentrations is at least a specified threshold, determine that thecurrently selected bed of carbonaceous material requires regeneration orreplacement, and in response, close the input and output valves to thevessel containing the bed, and open the input and output valves to thevessel containing a next selected bed.

The carbonaceous material from the spent bed can be regenerated and/orrecycled as the iodine-containing additive 144. Regeneration couldinclude steps 608 and 612 to remove sorbed mercury followed by asuitable process to desorb iodine and iodide from the carbonaceousmaterial. For example, iodine is soluble in, and desorbed from thecarbonaceous material in, a number of organic solvents. In anotherexample, the carbonaceous material can be acidified with a mineral acidto a pH in the range of about pH 1 to about pH 4 to dissolve the iodinein solution. In another example, the carbonaceous material can bereduced by a reducing agent to iodide, which has less affinity for thecarbonaceous material. Under proper conditions of pH, the iodide willdesorb into solution. Another technique is by elution from thecarbonaceous material using aqueous sodium hydroxide. In anothertechnique, the iodine is eluted by contacting the carbonaceous materialwith aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl) and bleach (NaOCl) under slightlyacidic pH. Once dissolved, the iodine can be isolated by knowntechniques, such as precipitation, an ion exchange resin, and the like.

FIG. 3 depicts a scrubbing facility that may be employed in the plantconfiguration of FIG. 1. The wet scrubber 132 includes a further treatedwaste gas 136 outlet 304, a scrubber housing 308, a scrubbing solution300 inlet 312 (which is typically a series of spray nozzles to providean atomized spray of scrubbing solution 300), and a scrubbing solution300 outlet 316, and treated waste gas 128 inlet 320. The scrubber caninclude one or more scrubbing vanes (not shown) to induce turbulent gasflow within the scrubber housing 308. The contaminated scrubbingsolution 328 settles in a lower portion 324 of the scrubber 132 forremoval by the scrubbing slurry outlet 316. An oxidizing agent 332 canbe introduced to perform forced oxidation as discussed above.

The contaminated scrubbing solution 328 is removed from the scrubber 132and sent to a dewatering plant 336. A typical dewatering plant includesone or more of hydrocyclones, filters, settling tanks, and the like, todewater the solid byproduct in the contaminated scrubbing solution 328.The solid byproduct can, for instance, be a carbonate, hydroxide,sulfate (e.g., gypsum), sulfite, fly ash, and other recovered waste gasconstituents.

The dewatering plant 332 produces contaminated water 340 and a solidbyproduct 344.

The contaminated water 340 is contacted with the carbonaceous material150, such as by passing the water 340 through a fixed or fluidized bedof carbonaceous material 150. When the carbonaceous material 150 isloaded with iodine and/or iodide, it can be provided to the regenerationfacility 170 to produce clean carbonaceous material 348 substantiallyfree of elemental and speciated mercury and iodine, a mercury byproduct352, and an iodine-containing product 356. Alternatively, after mercuryremoval the carbonaceous material 150 can be used as aniodine-containing additive 144.

The treated water 360 is subjected to oxidation and/or pH adjustment(box 364) to precipitate waste gas contaminants (which are then removedby a liquid/solid separation process (not shown), and the purified water368 combined, in a mixing vessel 372, with fresh water and additionalscrubbing reagent, to provide recirculated scrubbing solution 300.

FIG. 4 depicts a process for recovering carbonaceous material introducedupstream of or into the treated gas inlet of the scrubber. In thatevent, the carbonaceous material and scrubbing solution form a slurry orthe carbonaceous material becomes part of a slurried scrubbing solution,particularly an FGD scrubber producing a gypsum byproduct. Followingoxidation (step 608) and pH adjustment (step 612), the resultingcontaminated scrubber slurry 400 is subjected to separation of thecarbonaceous material from the other particulates (such as gypsum and/orflyash) to form a recovered carbonaceous material 150 and otherparticulates 408. The separation may be based on the differingproperties of the carbonaceous material 150 and other particulates 408.The properties include particle size, density, weight, specific gravity,and the like. For example, filtration may be used to effect theseparation where the carbonaceous material 150 and other particulates408 have different particles sizes and size fractions. Hydrocyclones maybe used to effect separation where the carbonaceous material 150 andother particulates 408 have different weights, specific gravities,and/or densities. Gravity settling and/or flotation may be used wherethe carbonaceous material 150 and other particulates 408 have differenthydrophilicities and/or hydrophobicities.

In one configuration, the solid fines containing suspended carbonaceousmaterial are separated from the coarse gypsum solids using a hydroclone.The hydroclone overflow stream with the fines in liquid suspension isnext treated by contact with an oxidizing agent, such as sodiumhypochlorite, to remove collected mercury from the activated carbon. Atthis step, the mercury is redissolved into solution and the activatedcarbon is substantially mercury-free. The mercury is precipitated fromsolution by contact with organosulfides.

The hydroclone overflow stream can be treated with oxidizer and pHadjusted, as necessary, to oxidize iodide to iodine. Iodine is thenefficiently adsorbed on the suspended carbonaceous material, leaving avery low concentration in solution. The carbonaceous material is thenseparated from solution by filtration and dewatered.

Another process configuration is introduction of carbonaceous sorbentexpressly for iodine recovery into the hydroclone overflow stream incombination with an oxidizer or oxidizing agent.

Other iodide/iodine recovery methods are possible. In one configuration,the recycle wastewater and/or discharge wastewater are passed through afinal polishing treatment wherein an oxidizer such as hydrogen peroxide,potassium permanganate, chlorine or sodium hypochlorite is added and thetreated stream is then passed through a packed granular activated carbonbed. This step would follow any treatment for removal of metals such asmercury or selenium. The packed bed is then changed when fully loaded,the carbon can be dried and then recharged to the coal belt.Alternatively, iodine could be recovered from a carbonaceous sorbent orgranular bed by further treatment steps to a purified commercial productif there was sufficient demand and it was cost effective to do so.

Another method that can be used for direct iodide removal from aqueoussolution is the use of ion (anion) exchange, typically with proprietaryorganic ion exchange resins. Anion exchange would typically be utilizedafter separation of coarse solids from the slurry treatment loop. Theiodine and/or iodine-containing compounds removed by ion exchange can bestripped from the ion exchange medium by a stripping solution.

Dissolved iodine and/or iodine-containing compounds can be removed fromthe scrubbing solution by other techniques, including solventextraction, adsorption, absorption, precipitation, membrane filtration,and the like. In one configuration, the dissolved iodine and/oriodine-containing compounds are removed in an organic solvent, such as ahydrocarbon solvent. Removal is effected based on the relativesolubilities of the iodine and/or iodine-containing compounds in twodifferent immiscible liquids, namely the aqueous phase of the scrubbingsolution and an organic solvent. In other words, the iodine and/oriodine-containing compounds are extracted from one liquid phase intoanother liquid phase. Extraction can be done without chemical change, bya solvation mechanism, by an ion exchange mechanism, by ion pairextraction, or by aqueous two-phase extraction.

Other dissolved impurities, such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, andthe like, can be removed before recycle. Selective removal of thevarious species can be, for example, by membrane separation,precipitation, adsorption, and/or absorption.

Upstream Oxidation of Mercury Species

Gaseous oxidized mercury compounds are much more soluble in water thanelemental mercury. Mercury entering a wet FGD scrubber should ideally befully or substantially fully oxidized to maximize capture of mercury inthe scrubber. Halogen additives increase mercury oxidation and alsoretention on fly ash and Loss on Ignition (“LOI”) carbon particulatesurfaces upstream of the scrubber. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, if afabric filter baghouse is installed, as the particulate removal device124, wet upstream of the scrubber 132, mercury oxidation can beincreased during flue gas passage through the fabric filter and ashcake. Carbonaceous sorbents injected into and/or upstream of thebaghouse can further increase mercury oxidation. Typically, the totalmercury is removed to a high percentage across the fabric filter, andthe vapor mercury exits the baghouse as Hg⁺⁺.

High sulfur dioxide and SO₃ or other acid flue gas species such as NO₂inhibit mercury capture on fly ash or carbonaceous sorbents in thebaghouse, but do not inhibit mercury oxidation. An increase in mercuryoxidation is still beneficial for downstream mercury capture in thescrubber. Mercury oxidation across a fabric filter can be enhanced byselection of bag fabric, temperature and ash cake management, sorbentinjection, oxidation catalyst or halogen coal additive. This can allowthe treatment rate of initial halogen coal additive to be reduced oreven eliminated when the final mercury control device is a wet scrubber.

EXPERIMENTAL

The following examples are provided to illustrate certain aspects,embodiments, and configurations of the disclosure and are not to beconstrued as limitations on the disclosure, as set forth in the appendedclaims. All parts and percentages are by weight unless otherwisespecified.

Short-term tests of liquid iodide salt solution added to the coal formercury reduction have been conducted on a full-scale boiler firing aPRB/bituminous blend coal and equipped with a LSFO scrubber. An increasein mercury re-emission was evidenced when the coal additive was applied.This test confirms the short-term impact of iodide increase in the FGD.Over time, it is expected that this could be prevented by extraction ofiodide from slurry solution.

Powdered activated carbon has been tested in the laboratory for iodineuptake from brine solution. In these tests, the iodine source waspotassium iodide that was oxidized by dilute hydrogen peroxide. Uptakeof up to 100% as iodine by weight of the carbon was measured.

Scrubber ORP was monitored over a period of a month at a Midwesternpower plant firing a PRB coal and employing a limestone forced oxidationscrubber for sulfur control. Iodine was added onto the coal at low ppmlevel as a mercury control agent over the entire monitored period.Iodine in solution (as iodide) increased from 0 to about 46 ppm overabout 24 days. Iodine in the slurry solids, measured after separationfrom the slurry liquid, increased from about 20 ppm to 645 ppm after 15days. This indicates that the majority of iodine is partitioning to thesolids as insoluble iodine. However, no attempt was made during thistest to separate iodine from the scrubber liquor. The use of carbonsorbents or other separation technologies, as described herein, couldhave allowed the iodine as I2 to separate onto the carbon sorbentpreferentially to the gypsum solids. Separation would have reduced thetotal iodine concentration in solution over time, since iodide speciesare both oxidized in the scrubber absorber as well as reduced back toiodide.

A number of variations and modifications of the disclosure can be used.It would be possible to provide for some features of the disclosurewithout providing others.

For example in one alternative embodiment, the present disclosure is notlimited to a recirculating scrubber. It may be applied to other types ofnon-recirculating scrubbers.

In another alternative embodiment, the present disclosure is employedwith any of a number of types of wet scrubbers. To promote maximumgas-liquid surface area and residence time, a number of wet scrubberdesigns have been used, including spray towers, venturis, plate towers,and mobile packed beds. The configuration of the tower may be verticalor horizontal, and flue gas can flow cocurrently, countercurrently, orcrosscurrently with respect to the liquid. A venturi scrubber is aconverging/diverging section of duct. The converging section acceleratesthe gas stream to high velocity. When the liquid stream is injected atthe throat, which is the point of maximum velocity, the turbulencecaused by the high gas velocity atomizes the liquid into small droplets,which creates the surface area necessary for mass transfer to takeplace. The higher the pressure drop in the venturi, the smaller thedroplets and the higher the surface area. A packed scrubber includes atower with packing material inside. This packing material can be in theshape of saddles, rings, or some highly specialized shapes designed tomaximize contact area between the dirty gas and liquid. A spray towerincludes a tower with spray nozzles, which generate the droplets forsurface contact. Spray towers are typically used when circulating aslurry (see below). The high speed of a venturi would cause erosionproblems, while a packed tower would plug up if it tried to circulate aslurry.

In yet other embodiments, the sequence of the process steps in any ofFIGS. 4 and 6 can be reversed and/or the steps can be combined,depending on the application.

In yet other embodiments, mercury is oxidized by introducing, on thefeed material and/or in the waste gas, a halogen and/orhalogen-containing material in lieu of or addition to iodine and/oriodine-containing material. The halogen and/or halogen-containingmaterial can be, for example, bromine, chlorine, bromide, chloride, andother bromine- and/or chlorine-containing compounds or compositions.

The present disclosure, in various aspects, embodiments, andconfigurations, includes components, methods, processes, systems and/orapparatus substantially as depicted and described herein, includingvarious aspects, embodiments, configurations, subcombinations, andsubsets thereof. Those of skill in the art will understand how to makeand use the various aspects, aspects, embodiments, and configurations,after understanding the present disclosure. The present disclosure, invarious aspects, embodiments, and configurations, includes providingdevices and processes in the absence of items not depicted and/ordescribed herein or in various aspects, embodiments, and configurationshereof, including in the absence of such items as may have been used inprevious devices or processes, e.g., for improving performance,achieving ease and\or reducing cost of implementation.

The foregoing discussion of the disclosure has been presented forpurposes of illustration and description. The foregoing is not intendedto limit the disclosure to the form or forms disclosed herein. In theforegoing Detailed Description for example, various features of thedisclosure are grouped together in one or more, aspects, embodiments,and configurations for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. Thefeatures of the aspects, embodiments, and configurations of thedisclosure may be combined in alternate aspects, embodiments, andconfigurations other than those discussed above. This method ofdisclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that theclaimed disclosure requires more features than are expressly recited ineach claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspectslie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed aspects,embodiments, and configurations. Thus, the following claims are herebyincorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing onits own as a separate preferred embodiment of the disclosure.

Moreover, though the description of the disclosure has includeddescription of one or more aspects, embodiments, or configurations andcertain variations and modifications, other variations, combinations,and modifications are within the scope of the disclosure, e.g., as maybe within the skill and knowledge of those in the art, afterunderstanding the present disclosure. It is intended to obtain rightswhich include alternative aspects, embodiments, and configurations tothe extent permitted, including alternate, interchangeable and/orequivalent structures, functions, ranges or steps to those claimed,whether or not such alternate, interchangeable and/or equivalentstructures, functions, ranges or steps are disclosed herein, and withoutintending to publicly dedicate any patentable subject matter.

1. A method, comprising: receiving a waste gas comprising an acid gasand at least one of elemental iodine and an iodine-containingcomposition; passing the waste gas through a wet scrubber to remove atleast a portion of the acid gas and the at least one of elemental iodineand an iodine-containing composition from the waste gas and form ascrubbing solution comprising at least one of an acid derived from theacid gas and a derivative thereof and at least one of elemental iodineand an iodine-containing composition; removing, from the scrubbingsolution, at least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodine andan iodine-containing composition, thereby reducing a concentration ofthe at least one of elemental iodine and an iodine-containingcomposition in the scrubbing solution; and applying at least some of theremoved at least a portion of the at least one of the elemental iodineand the iodine-containing composition to coal, wherein the coal and theremoved at least a portion of the at least one of the elemental iodineand the iodine-containing composition are combusted to form the wastegas.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the waste gas comprises elementalmercury and further comprising: contacting an iodine-containing additivewith the waste gas upstream of the wet scrubber to oxidize elementalmercury in the waste gas to a non-elemental mercury, wherein the removedat least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodine andiodine-containing composition is contacted with the waste gas upstreamof the wet scrubber.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the waste gascomprises elemental mercury and further comprising: contacting aniodine-containing additive with a mercury-containing feed material,wherein the waste gas is derived from the mercury-containing feedmaterial and wherein the removed at least a portion of the at least oneof elemental iodine and iodine-containing composition is contacted withthe mercury-containing feed material.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereinthe at least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodine and aniodine-containing composition is removed from the scrubbing solution byone or more of ion exchange, absorption, adsorption, precipitation,filtration, solvent extraction, ion pair extraction, and an aqueoustwo-phase extraction.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the removingstep comprises passing at least a portion of the scrubbing solutionthrough a carbonaceous material to collect onto the carbonaceousmaterial the at least one of elemental iodine and an iodine-containingcomposition.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein, after the removing step,the scrubbing solution is returned to the wet scrubber and wherein thewet scrubber is a flue-gas desulfurization scrubber.
 7. The method ofclaim 6, wherein a flow of the scrubbing solution is controlled at arate to maintain overall iodine concentration in the scrubber solutionat less than about 100 ppm.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein a flow ofan input scrubbing solution through is stopped when a concentration ofthe at least one of iodine and iodine-containing composition in anoutput scrubbing solution is at least a predetermined threshold and/or adifference between concentrations of the at least one of iodine andiodine-containing composition in the input and output scrubbingsolutions is at least a predetermined threshold.
 9. The method of claim8, wherein the flow through the input scrubbing solution is stoppedautomatically by a microprocessor and a flow of the output scrubbingsolution through is initiated automatically by the microprocessor inresponse to an absolute value of the concentration of the at least oneof iodine and iodine-containing composition in the output scrubbingsolution reaching the at least a predetermined threshold.
 10. The methodof claim 4, wherein the at least a portion of the at least one ofelemental iodine and an iodine-containing composition is removed fromthe scrubbing solution by an organic solvent.
 11. The method of claim10, wherein the organic solvent is a hydrocarbon solvent.
 12. The methodof claim 10, wherein the scrubbing solution and the organic solvent areimmiscible, wherein the one or more of the iodine and theiodine-containing compositions have different relative solubilities inscrubbing solution and the organic solvent, and wherein removal isremoval is effected by the different relative solubilities of the one ormore of the iodine and the iodine-containing compounds in the immisciblescrubbing solution and the organic solvent.
 13. The method of claim 4,wherein the one or more of the iodine and the iodine-containingcompositions are extracted from one liquid phase into another liquidphase.
 14. The method of claim 4, wherein the solvent extraction iseffected without a chemical change by one or more of a solvationmechanism, an ion exchange mechanism, an ion-pair extraction, and anaqueous two-phase extraction.
 15. A method, comprising: receiving awaste gas comprising an acid gas and elemental mercury; contacting aniodine-containing additive with the waste gas upstream of a wet scrubberto oxidize elemental mercury in the waste gas to a non-elemental mercurypassing the waste gas through a wet scrubber to remove at least aportion of the acid gas and at least one of elemental iodine and aniodine-containing composition derived from the iodine-containingadditive and form a scrubbing solution comprising at least one of anacid and salt derived from the acid gas and the at least one ofelemental iodine and an iodine-containing composition; removing, fromthe scrubbing solution, at least a portion of the at least one ofelemental iodine and an iodine-containing composition, thereby reducinga concentration of the at least one of elemental iodine and aniodine-containing composition in the scrubbing solution; and applying atleast some of the removed at least a portion of the at least one of theelemental iodine and the iodine-containing composition to coal, whereinthe coal and the removed at least a portion of the at least one of theelemental iodine and the iodine-containing composition applied to thecoal are combusted to form the received waste gas.
 16. The method ofclaim 15, wherein the at least a portion of the at least one ofelemental iodine and an iodine-containing composition is removed fromthe scrubbing solution by one or more of ion exchange, absorption,adsorption, precipitation, filtration, solvent extraction, ion pairextraction, and an aqueous two-phase extraction.
 17. The method of claim16, wherein, after the removing step, the scrubbing solution is returnedto the wet scrubber and wherein the wet scrubber is a flue-gasdesulfurization scrubber.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein a flow ofthe scrubbing solution is controlled at a rate to maintain an overalliodine concentration in the scrubber solution at less than about 100ppm.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein a flow of an input scrubbingsolution through a first bed is stopped when a concentration of the atleast one of iodine and iodine-containing composition in an outputscrubbing solution is at least a predetermined threshold and/or adifference between concentrations of the at least one of iodine andiodine-containing composition in the input and output scrubbingsolutions is at least a predetermined threshold.
 20. A method,comprising: receiving a waste gas comprising at least one of elementaliodine and an iodine-containing composition; passing the waste gasthrough a wet scrubber to remove the at least one of elemental iodineand an iodine-containing composition from the waste gas and form ascrubbing solution comprising the at least one of elemental iodine andan iodine-containing composition; and removing, from the scrubbingsolution, at least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodine andan iodine-containing composition by one or more of ion exchange,absorption, adsorption, precipitation, filtration, solvent extraction,ion pair extraction, and an aqueous two-phase extraction, therebyreducing a concentration of the at least one of elemental iodine and aniodine-containing composition in the scrubbing solution; and applyingthe removed at least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodineand an iodine-containing composition to coal, wherein the coal and theremoved at least a portion of the at least one of elemental iodine andan iodine-containing composition applied to the coal are combusted toform the received waste gas.